To Explain Fire Setting Behaviour Psychology Essay

To Explain Fire Setting demeanor Psychology Essay intentional flack ensn atomic number 18ting is a costly and serious form of anti accessible demeanour that washbowl sire devastating consequences, both personally and financially. Encapsulating this notion, fire departments in the United States confirmed that in 2007, in that location were over 300,000 intentionally forget me drug fires recorded, ca employ hundreds of fatalities, thousands of injuries and gene rolld over a billion dollars of financial costs (Hall, 2010). The barrier firesetting is often used interchangeably with the legal term arson, defining the special(prenominal) sorry act of intentionally or recklessly setting fire to dam get on or defraud (Vaughn et al, 2010). Conversely, firesetting is the term used to describe to incidences whereby the thrifty setting of fires whitethorn not convey been prosecuted for a variety of reasons (e.g. shy(predicate) severity to cause damage or has not been detected as a deliberate fire identity of the fire setter is unknown insufficient several(prenominal)ise to gain a conviction or the young age of the setter Dickens Sugarman, 2012). Firesetting is therefore applicable to a wider scale of people who designedly engage in setting fires, than the narrow definition of arson. Existing question suggests that much(prenominal) doings is more frequently perpetrated by child and juveniles than adults (Kolko, 1985). b bely recent happen uponings show that approximately one million people in the United States, and 200,000 in UK have set a fire since the age of 15 (Dickens Sugarman, 2012), thereby suggesting firesetting often continues into adulthood (Blanco et al, 2010 Vaughn et al, 2010). Research into the potentiality origins of the behaviour indicates that such(prenominal)(prenominal) actions be strongly correlated with a range of exclusive characteristics and antecedents (Vaughn et al, 2010). What is more, firesetting is a symptom of pyroma nia, however as the community prevalence of this is patently r be (Grant, Levine, Kim Potenza, 2005 Lejoyeux, Arbarateaz, McLoughlin Ads, 2002), the suggestion of co-morbidity among firesetting and more earthy types of affable disorder, as found by a range of scholars (Anwar, Lngstrom, Grann Fazel 2011 Blanco et al, 2010 Bradford Dimock, 1986 Richie Huff, 1999 Vaughn et al, 2010) has been preferred. As a solving, these associations have lifesizely featured in the construction of typologies, integrity factor and multifactor theories that attempt to explain firesetting behaviour. This essay aims to critically assess such theories.A fundamental basis for powerful assessment and treatment of criminal behaviour is aw arness of, and comprehensive understanding of aetiologic system. This provides a content framework from which to plot the inter family likenessships amidst an offenders presented clinical phenomena and central mental variables. deep down literature relat ing to sexual offend, Ward and Hudson (1998) eluded to a meaningful method of conceptualising aetiologic theory into two types wizard factor and multi factor theories (Ward Hudson, 1998). As these bit by means ofout the essay, it is favourable to address each style. Single factor theories ar those which focus on explaining a lone factor and its causal relationship with offending. Conversely, multifactor theories unite conglomerate single factor theories into a thorough lineation of offending, providing an account of how the factors are merged to facilitate offending behaviour (Gannon, Ciardha, Doley Alleyne, 2012).A set ahead, and relatively underdeveloped form of theory absent from those detailed by Ward and Hudson (1998) is taxonomic classification, or typologies. Here, various offenders are subtyped into groups, based on shared motivational factors, personality characteristics, demographic aspects or a junto of each (Gannon Pina, 2010). These classifications represe nt uni afterwardal assemblage that when deemed sufficient and reliable, play an effective division in assessment and treatment, as well as victuals into more comprehensive theories of offence behaviour (Gannon et al, 2012). Because of this reason, typologies will feature at the beginning of this evaluation. Before commencing however, it is beneficial to portray what constitutes the typical firesetter.Firstly, reports from several scholars have suggested that the majority of apprehended firesetters are white (Bennett Hess, 1984 Ritchie Huff, 1999 Rix, 1994). Concerning gender, figures confirm that male person firesetters are more frequent than female firesetters, for example one study highlighted that in excess of 80% of self account firesetters were male, equal to a malefemale gender ratio approximating 51 (Blanco et al, 2010 Vaughn et al, 2010). In support, sympathetic gender ratios that approach or exceeding this are common in various selected renders (Bourget Bradford, 19 89 Lewis Yarnell, 1951 Stewart, 1993). Firesetting therefore, appears largely to be a male activity. In relation to age, studies have found that more than half of firesetters were aged 18-35 years, compared to 31% of the non-firesetter retain population. In summation, older firesetters were found to be rare, with 4% aged 65 years and over, compared with 16% of population controls (Blanco et al Vaughn et al, 2010). Other scholars have too reported a tendency towards youth as a find of exposure factor (Bourget Bradford, 1989 Puri, Baxter Cordess, 1995). Therefore, firesetters appear to be generally young and moreover, a large number of studies further show that the majority of which are typically junior than non-firesetting criminals (Hurley Monahan, 1969 Rice Harris, 1991). Lastly, firesetters tend to be low achievers in education and more likely to be unemployed or unskilled than separate non-firesetting offenders (Bradford,1982 Harris Rice, 1991), disfavor in terms of social class (Hurley Monahan, 1969) and also possess difficulties in forming long lasting relationships, as some(prenominal) are typically reported to be living alone and never to have married (Bourget Bradford,1989 Puri et al, 1995 Ritchie Huff, 1999 Dickens, Sugarman, Edgar, Hofberg, Tewari Ahmad, 2009).Representing the rattling earliest stages of theory development are typologies, of which there have been galore( postal servicenominal) (e.g. Icove Estepp, 1987 Inciardi, 1970 Lewis Yarnell, 1951 Rix, 1994). Perhaps the initiative researchers to provide a classificatory system for firesetters were Lewis and Yarnell (1951) who, using 2000 reports of firesetting identified quatern reasons as to why fires were set, these included unintentionally, by means of delusions, through erotic pleasure and to acquire revenge (Lewis Yarnell, 1951). This early typology was pioneering since it laid the foundations for other researchers to add to (Bradford, 1982). One scholar who obl iged several years posterior was Inciardi (1970) who examined records of paroled firesetters released from state prisons over a six year period and find six categories of firesetter institutionalised, insurance claim, vandalism, crime concealment, excitement and revenge (Inciardi, 1970).A attain durability of Inciardis (1970) work was the amount of participants studied, but another was that there were similarities between two of the categorisations taked by himself, and Lewis and Yarnell (1951). This is signifi force outt as the figurehead of these categories within firesetting can be linked to and support by other empirical findings. For example, in reference to their erotic pleasure (Lewis Yarnell, 1951) and excitement (Inciardi, 1970) categories, these take to particular relevance to symptoms of pyromania (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), an impulsive disorder characterised by intensive fascination with and a desire to associate oneself with fire and fire paraph ernalia, though as there are many diagnostic restrictions, the prevalence of pyromania is rare (Doley, 2003). An additional law of similarity seen between the two typologies (Lewis Yarnell, 1951 Incairdi, 1970) is the inclusion of revenge as a category, which is back up as a motive for firesetting by many scholars (e.g. Koson Dvoskin, 1982 Pettiway, 1987 Rix, 1994).A tonality criticism of the typologies proposed by Inciardi (1970) and similar ones that followed (e.g, Dennet, 1980 Icove Estepp, 1987 Rautaheimo, 1989) was that their categories were generally too broad (Gannon et al, 2012). Therefore, later typologies used a smaller number of categories using data compulsive strategies (e.g. Almond, Duggan, Shine Canter, 2005 Canter Fritzon, 1998 Harris Rice, 1996 Rice Harris, 1991), providing an empirically stronger classification of firesetters (Gannon et al, 2012). One such example by Rice and Harris (1996) investigated 11 variables thought to be near associated with fire setting, in a sample of 243 mentally disordered firesetters. They discovered four categories labelled as psychotics (motivated by delusions and characterised by few incidents), unassertives (motivated mainly by kindle or vengeance and characterised by low assertiveness), multifiresetters (primarily set fires in institutions and characterised by myopic developmental experiences), and criminals (likely to operate at night, characterised by poor developmental experiences and, personality disorder) (Rice Harris, 1996).Rice and Harriss (1996) typology is possibly one of the strongest available as not only does it state the criteria required for group membership, but many of their aspects above are supported by empirical research (Gannon et al, 2012). For instance, the presence of personality disorder in Rice and Harriss (1996) criminal category is supported by findings that show antisocial personality disorder is particularly common in firesetters (APA, 2000 Bradford, 1982 Kolko, 1985 Kolko Kazdin, 1991). This is in addition to support for the presence of delusions as a motivation for firesetting, since a link between firesetting and schizophrenia has also been show (Geller, 1987 McKerracher Dacre, 1966 Richie Huff, 1999). One could argue however, that the presence of psychopathology within Rice Harriss (1996) sample was expected, as it was limited to those who were mentally disordered (Gannon et al, 2012). Although one of the adjudged reasons identified by Lewis and Yarnell (1951) as to why a fire may be set was through delusions (Lewis Yarnell, 1951), and this research was based on a sample destitute from mental disorder.Shared characteristics of firesetters identified in typologies often help to pop scholars to explain these through psychological theory, thus our attention is now shifted towards single factor theories of firesetting. Possibly the earliest single factor theory was proposed by Freud (1932), later elaborated upon by other authors (Gold, 1 932 Macht Mack, 1968). Here it was hypothesised that firesetting originates from either a urethral or oral fixated sexual drive. Firstly, youngsters are believed to experience urinary incontinence as a means of attempting to extinguish firesetting occurring in dreams and secondly, firesetting is seen to symbolise suppress sexual urges (Gannon Pina, 2010). Other psychodynamic accounts made use of instinctual drives, such as ill will and anxiety to explain firesetting (e.g. Kaufman, Heims Reiser, 1961). However as there is a disreputable lack of empirical evidence to offer support to psychodynamic theory (Hollin, 2013), it is unsurprising that there is little support this, or the suggestion that that those who set fires find the act sexually arousing (Rice Harris, 1991 Quinsey, Chaplin Upfold, 1989), or that there is a high rate of enuresis amongst firesetters.In contrast, considerably more praise has been gathered by researchers focusing on the role of biology and neurologica l impairment in order to explain firesetting behaviour (Gannon Pina, 2010). For example, evidence suggests that firesetters have decreased concentrations of cerebrospinal fluid monomaine metabolites (Roy, Virkkunen, Guthrie Linnoila, 1986 Virkkunen, Nuutila, Goodwin Linnoila, 1987 Virkkunen, Dejongm Bartko Linnoila, 1989). Furthermore, Virkkunen et al (1989) found that recidivist firesetters were those roughly likely to have such abnormalities relative to non-recidivist firesetting, therefore suggesting that such abnormal neurotransmitter defects could account for lengthy and impulsive cases of firesetting. However as firesetting is often co-morbid with impulse disorder (Lidberg, Belfrage, Bertilsson, Evenden sberg, 2000), such abnormalities are unlikely to be specific to the act of firesetting itself.Perhaps the virtually supported concept relating to neuropsychological and biologic theories of firesetting, is through brain injury. render has found 28% of arsonists referr ed to forensic psychiatry services had a memorial of brain injury (Puri et al, 1995) and furthermore, abnormal electroencephalography readings were found amongst arsonists also when compared to non-offending and other offending controls (Bradford, 1982 Hill et al, 1982). Here it is believed that such trauma may exert an exaggerating impression that leads one to engage in firesetting behaviour (Kolko, 2002).One main scene of action of praise for biological perspectives of firesetting is that they offer promise for rehabilitation, depending on the nature of the freakishness (e.g. provision of serotoninergic drugs for offenders with low levels of cerebrospinal fluid monomaine metabolites Jovi, Mirkov, Maji-Singh Milovanovi, 1999). However, cases of firesetting associated solely on biological causes are rare, meaning this may limit professional examination of psychological and sociological factors that are also likely to be associated with firesetting (Gannon Pina, 2010).The final and most contemporary single factor theory of firesetting left to address is complaisant knowledge speculation (Bandura, 1976). The main assertion here is that firesetting is the product of support contingencies and study through modelling or imitation (Bandura, 1976 Kolko Kazdin, 1986 Macht Mack, 1968 Singer Hensley, 2004). For example, Vreeland and Levin (1980) propose that firesetting can be instantly reinforcing via sensory excitement connected to fire, in addition to the sirens, noise and crowds elicited by fire (Vreelin Levin, 1980). Furthermore, as electro dogmatic reinforcement does not necessarily need to be directly go through for social learning to transpire, learning associated with fire may occur vicariously through mere exposure to fires (legitimate or illegitimate), or key models of firesetting behaviour (e.g. parents and caregivers Gannon et al, 2012). In support, there is key evidence showing firstly, that firesetters fathers occupations often posit cons iderable exposure to fire (e.g. firemen Stewart, 1993). Secondly, firesetters tend to be raised in environments where fire is more pervasive (e.g. countryside locations Wolford, 1972), or used as penalization (Ritvo, Shanok Lewis, 1983). And finally, firesetters often orginate from families with a history of firesetting (Rice Harris, 1991).Social encyclopaedism surmise can also be applied in conjunction with earlier interchange of firesetting typologies, of which a common category proposed was firesetting that related to revenge or was anger induced (Lewis Yarnell, 1951 Inciardi, 1970 Rice Harris, 1996). For example, Social Learning Theory forecasts that self-regulatory responses are created as a product of reinforcement contingencies. Consequently, poor childhood socialisation personified through exposure to negative developmental experiences and role models are likely to result in aggression, poor coping skills and a lack of assertiveness (Gannon Pina, 2010). As there is a wealth of evidence to support the presence of such traits amongst firesetters (e.g. Ainsworth, 1989 Bowlby, 1969 capital of Mississippi et al, 1987 Rice Chaplin, 1979 Rice Harris, 2008 Root, Mackay, Henderson, Del Bove Warling, 2008 Showers Pickrell, 1987 Smith Short, 1995), these are likely to scarper individuals towards reckless behaviours (Nagin Paternoster, 1993) and launch a propensity to light fires to gain positive environmental control (Vreeland Levin, 1980). Thus Social Learning Theory foretells that various developmental experiences, cues, cognitive perceptions and expectations shape a persons proclivity for firesetting, notably as a form of learnt aggression (Gannon Pina, 2010). However one key limit point is that it is unclear which combination of factors culminates in facilitating other forms of firesetting (Gannon Pina, 2010).The final type of theory to consider addresses key features of previous theories to present a more holistic view to the path of fire setting, known as multifactor theories. Here, fundamental interactions are explicitly specify between individual characteristics and features of the social environmental that are integral to the closing to offend. Within this perspective there are two main approaches to consider. The first of which used available epitome Theory principles (Sturmey, 2008), to explain firesetting as an interaction of antecedents and behavioural consequences (Jackson et al, 1987). Referring to their clinical experience of firesetters, research literature and tenets of Social Learning Theory, Jackson et al (1987) formulated the core associative links hypothesised to puddle and reinforce firesetting. Regarding antecedents, five factors were assumed psychosocial disadvantage, life dis merriment and self loathing, social ineffectiveness, factors find the individuals experiences of fire and interior or external firesetting triggers (Jackson et al, 1987). Within this paradigm, firesetters are viewed a s individuals who, throughout their early years experience significant social difficulties and are unable to satisfy their emotional and social needs through steal means (Jackson et al, 1987). However, involvement in fire and fire paraphernalia allows for some control to be exerted over their environment, which is ordinarily unobtainable to them. This is in addition to increased attention from distracted or distanced caregivers such that fire engage is positively reinforced. Such increases in personal effectiveness and self esteem, alongside sensory stimulation of the fire therefore increases interest in fire, thereby mounting the likelihood of firesetting in the future (Gannon et al, 2012). Jackson et al further add that negative reinforcement priniciples may play an equally meaning(a) role in developing and sustaining firesetting. Here they suggest punitive consequences of firesetting (e.g. rejection, punishment, intense and increased supervision) may strengthen the offenders personal inadequacies already experienced, such that firesetting behaviours are continued (Jackson et al, 1987).A main strength of the Functional synopsis Theory (Jackson et al, 1987) is that there is a wealth of evidence available that favours the hypothesised association between firesetting and psychosocial disadvantage (e.g. Blackburn, 1993 Geller, 1987, Hollin, 1989 Inciardi, 1970). For example, as well as being generally psychiatrically upturned (Barnett Spitzer, 1994), many firesetters suffer specifically from depression, low self esteem and substance abuse (Coid, Wilkins Coid, 1999 Puri et al, 1995 Repo, 1998). Whats more, researchers also note specifically that firesetters are frequently socially inept and experience maladjustment across several life domains, such as education and employment and peer personal relations (Bradford, 1982 Harris Rice, 1984 OSullivan Kelleher, 1982 Vreeland Levin, 1980). Although, many of these psychosocial variables are found to be commo n among other types of offender (Hurley Monahan, 1969), therefore it may not be wise to generalise such findings wholly to firesetters. Nevertheless, Jackson et als work is deserving of praise in its unification of obscure findings and hypotheses together into one whole (Gannon Pina, 2010), coupled with its relevance for clinicians, helping to endure and guide contemporary treatment for firesetting (Swaffer, Haggert Oxley, 2001 Taylor, Thorne Slavin, 2004).As in Functional Analysis Theory (Jackson et al, 1987), the other multifactor theory of firesetting known as the Dynamic Behaviour Theory (Fineman, 1980 1995), followed the view that such behaviour is a product of historical psychosocial influences that shape a persons tendency to set fires through social learning experiences. The theory stipulates that firesetting is the result of an interaction between historical factors predisposing antisocial actions (e.g. social disadvantage), previous and existing environmental reinfo rcers (e.g. childhood experiences) and instant environmental reinforcers (e.g. external, internal sensory reinforcement) (Fineman, 1995). The latter is further split into numerous variables that Fineman (1995) argues should be explored by clinicians. These include, impulsivity triggers (e.g. rejection or trauma), crime scene features that may provide reasoning crumb such behaviour (e.g. target of a specific individual), cognitions and affects prior to, during and post firesetting, and lastly any external (e.g. financial reward) or internal reinforcers (e.g. satisfaction or sensory satisfaction). Fineman (1995) ultimately hypothesises that firesetting stems from the culmination of interactions between these aforementioned factors, action to recommend careful investigation of each when assessing and treating firesetters (Fineman, 1995).Akin to Functional Analysis Theory (Jackson et al, 1987), Dynamic Behaviour Theory (Fineman, 1995) plays a key role in developing professional under standing of firesetting. A specific strength of this theory was that the attention paid to the more proximal variables related to firesetting, as this expresses how crucial psychological factors contribute to the development and maintenance of firesetting behaviour (Gannon Pina, 2010). international from these strengths however, is the problem that empirical support for this theory has largely been limited to findings from juvenile firesetters, meaning many mechanisms associated with adult firesetting are left unexplained by this theory (Gannon et al, 2012).This evaluation has shown that the majority of empirical work undertaken with firesetters has focused on the production of typological classificatory systems and the examination of firesetters psychopathological and sociodemographical features. This information is useful in gaining an essential understanding of a variety of motives behind firesetting behaviour and has surface the way for scholars to address the underlying mean ing of such motives through etiological theory. This in turn aims to help deliver effective treatments to firesetters. In response, several single factor theories have been applied to explain firesetting, however these are unable to explain the myriad of features that typically interact to facilitate and maintain firesetting (Gannon Pina, 2010). Though, one key addition to single factor theories is Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1976 Vreeland Levin, 1980), of which key aspects featured throughout both available multifactor theories of firesetting, Functional Analysis Theory (Jackson et al, 1987) and Dynamic Behaviour Theory (Fineman, 1980 1995). Both multifactor theories hold several strengths, particularly their focus on developmental experiences as a factor explaining interest in, and reinforcement of firesetting (Gannon Pina, 2010). However, despite being the most take into account method of explaining firesetting, absent from their accounts is any reference to the full ran ge of risk factors or criminogenic needs associated with the broad range of firesetting behaviours, nor is there acknowledgement of the potential factors linked with a desistence from firesetting (Gannon et al, 2012). This inevitably led to the recent development of the Multi-Trajectory Theory of Adult Firesetting (Gannon et al, 2012) not discussed in specific detail here, but which co-ordinated the current theory, typological, and research findings considered throughout this essay into one sizeable etiological theory of firesetting and its maintenance and desistence.