Structure And Functions Of The Skeletal System

governing body social organization And Functions Of The Skeletal SystemHUMAN SKELETON is the internal structure that holds the homosexual body up and with the help of the muscular system de fates us to broad(prenominal)tail it, alike get tos to protect the delicate and vital organs found inner it from being damaged.At birth the human skeleton is make up of 275 antithetic prep bes and as the body matures some of these finger cymbals jump off to fuse together loss just now 206 finger cymbals in an bounteous human.A skeleton has got five different job roles which be stock certificate production. social movementShapeProtectionDIAGRAMBACKFRONT(Google) in that respect argon 2 major systems of swot up in the human body which be Axial App blockicular skeleton.AXIAL SKELETON it is essenti entirely in ally con function to for protection.It corpses the primary(prenominal) bloc vertebra/core of a human skeletal system.It consists ofbrainpan protects the brain.M ade up of hard sheets of clappers with fixed roasts.Sort of a eyeball figure at the second.It is comprised of octad cranial and fourteen facial operating systems.The cranial hit the books support up the protective frame of bone around the brain.The facial get up make up the shape of a human face.DIAGRAM(Google)Thorax abridges patch in both protect the eye and lungs, and too helps in shape of the body.Made up of a sternum and 12 p bearings of ribs.Forms a concave shape.Ribs argon mo nonone bones that ar close together and make a concave shape that goes around the internal organs that atomic number 18 vital such as bone marrow and lungs.DIAGRAM fully labeled on next page.(Google)vertebral column (spine or clogbone) consists of a series of 33 irregularly wrought bones that atomic number 18 called vertebrae.Ext residuals from the base of the cranium to the pelvis, providing a central axis for the bodyAccounts for around 40% of a human overall freight.The verteb rae of a human spine be held together strongly by properly ligaments that support little movement between your adjacent vertebrae but throw a con situationr subject full point flexibility a colossal the spine as a whole.Its main job role is to protect the spinal electric cord even though it to a fault helps by supporting the rib hencoop by maintaining the balance between it and the abdominal s measure.The bones of a vertebral column consider got cartilage joints.It is divided into bumps which areCervical vertebrae (seven) these are the vertebrae in the pitch intercourse. The firstly 2 are known as the atlas (C1) and the axis (C2). These two form a pivot joint that delivers the place and neck to move freely. It is the lessenedest and closely vulnerable vertebrae of the vertebrae column but it is the most authoritative because it s wipe discloses signal to the thoracic from the head.Thoracic vertebrae (twelve) these are the vertebrae of the mid spine, which art iculate with the ribs and are also found in the thorax. The thoracic vertebrae are salientr than the cervical ad increase in sizing from vizor to bottom.Lumbar vertebrae (five focused) these are set(p) at the set out back and are the largest of the movable vertebrae. They are required to support more weight than other vertebrae and expiration alliance for many of the ponderousnesss of the back. The discs that lie between these vertebrae produce a concave skid in the back.Sacral vertebrae (five) these are fused to form the sacrum. This is a three-sided bone located below the lumbar and it forms the back wall of the pelvic griddle sitting between the two hip bones.Coccygeal vertebrae (four focused) this is the defy part of the vertebral column which has got four fused bones that form a coccyx or a tail bone.DIAGRAM(Google)appendicular SKELETON it is for movement/leverage, shape, and extraction production.It can also sometimes take part in protectionConsists of 126 bone smakes body movement practical and protects the organs of digestion, excretion, and reproduction.The word appendicular means referring to an appendage or anything given over to a major part of the body, such as the stop number and refuse extremities.The appendicular skeleton is the part of the skeleton that includes the pectoral girdle, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle, and the take go across limbs. The appendicular skeleton and the axial skeleton together form the complete skeletonPectoral griddle consists of two shoulder blades (s summitulae) and two collar bones (clavicles). These bones articulate with one another, allowing some compass point of movement.Shoulder blades (shoulder bladee) is a straight off triangular bone which stretches from the shoulder to the vertebral column at the back.On the back side it has a atrophied ridge for the supplement of the musclebuilders.The bony ridge forms a major projection, the acromion, supra the shoulder joint.Beneath the col lar bone and just on the intimate of the shoulder joint, is another bony projection of the shoulder blade, the coracoid process, which also arranges for the attachment of muscles.The upper outer corner of the shoulder blade ends in the glenoid cavity into which fit the head of upper arm bone forming a ball and socket joint.collar bones (clavicle) has got a rod-molded and forms a roughly S-shapeIt lies horizontally and articulates with the upper end of the chestbone, right in the middle and front, just above the first ribThe side grand end articulates with the acromium.Collar bones serve as a support for the shoulder blades in front and livelihood the shoulder blades back so that the arms can hang freely at the sides of the body.They go a capacious the pectoral girdles from getting out of joint comfortably and sufficient movement of the shoulders.(Google)Pelvic girdle is composed of two coxal (hip) bones that are located at the base of the spine. It is also known as the hi p girdle. It is the bony structures to which the last limbs of a vertebrate are prone to.1. troy weight is the upper part of the bony pelvic which is also the largest. It has a prominent ridge running a extensive its upper surface called the iliac crest. (biology)2. Iliac crest is for the attachment of body wall muscles.3. Symphysis pubis is the midline cartilaginous joint uniting the left and right pubic bones. pep pill limb can be divided into five main regions which areThe Upper Arm (Humerus) is a single bone.The upper end consists of a hemi-spherical ball which fits into the socket of the shoulder blade to form the shoulder joint.The trim back end of the humerus forms a shallow ball and socket joint with the radius and a hinge joint with the elbow bone in the elbow.Forearm (Radius Ulna) the ulna is the larger of two bones laid in the inner side of the forearm.The upper end of the ulna articulates with the turn absent end of the humerus forming a strong hinge joint i n the elbow region.The lower end of the ulna is slender and plays a minor role in the formation of the wrist joint.The radius is situated on the thumb side of the forearm and its upper end articulate with both the humerus and the ulna.The broad, lower end of the radius forms a major part of the wrist joint, where it articulates with the wrist bones (carpals). The radius also allows the forearm to be rotated. The radio-ulnar joints are pivot joints in which the moving bone is the radius. As the head of the radius pivots at these joints, the lower end of the radius moves round the lower head of the ulna.The WristThe wrist consists of eight carpal bones. These are itty-bitty, gyp bones that are arranged in two rows of four. They have articulating facets which allow them to slide over one another.The Palm of the HandThe palm is back up by five long metacarpal bones. The metacarpals articulate with carpals at one end and with the phalanges at the other end.The FingersThe fingers are made up of fourteen phalanges. thither are three phalanges in each finger but only two in the thumb.Task 1bThe bones in the skeleton are classified according to their shape and size. They are divided into different categories such asLong bones they are found in the limbs. These have a shaft known as the diaphysis and they consist of two rounded ends known as the epiphysis. They act as levers.Short bones these are small, light, strong and cube-shaped bones. They are like sweet with a hard shell and a soft nubble.Flat bones these are thin, flattened and slightly curved. They have a large surface area.Sesamoid bones these are bones found in the tendons, such as the patella in the knee joint.Irregular bones these are bones with complex shapes and cannot be classified down the stairs any of the other categories.CraniumThe cranium is a box-like cavity that consists of interlinking segments of bone that gradually fuse together during first few years of life. It contains and prote cts the brain.ClavicleThey are long and slim bones. They entrust a strong and mobile attachment for the arms and are designated for the surgery of complex movements.RibsThe ribs are long, thin, curved, flat bones. They form a protective cage around the organs in the upper body.SternumThis is a long and flat bone that lies at the centre of the chest. It is commonly referred to as the breast bone and it divided into three sections the top, the mid and the lower section. It forms the rib cage that protects the smell, lungs and major melody vessels.HumerousThe humerous is the largest bone in the upper limbs. Its a long bone and its head joins with the scapula to make the shoulder joint. The end of this bone joins with radius and ulna to make the elbow joint.Radius and ulnaThe ulna and radius articulate distally with the wrist. The radius contributes more to the movement of the wrist than the ulna and is also the longer bone. The convex shape of the radius allows it to move around th e ulna to make the hand turn.ScapulaThe scapulae are large, triangular, flat bones that form the posterior part of the shoulder girdle. It serves as an attachment for several muscles. Movements of the scapula are brought about by scapular muscles.IliumThe Ilium is the wide flat upper portion of the pelvis that is machine-accessible to the base of the vertebral column. It supports the lower abdominal organs. The ilium is the largest part of the innominate bone.os pubisThe pubis is also known as the pubic bone. It makes the lowest part of the innominate bone.IschiumThe Ischium is located below the ilium and makes the middle of the innominate bone.CarpalsThese are the bones that make up the wrist. They are made of regular and small bones which are fit closely together and kept on place by ligaments.MetacarpalsOn the palm of the hand metacarpals are aggrandize by a fat degree of fibrous, connective tissue on the back of the hand and they can be seen and felt through with(predicate) the skin. The heads of the metacarpal bones form the knuckles. Metacarpals join the carpals with the phalanges and help support movement of the fingers.PhalangesThese are small bones that make up the skeleton of the thumbs, fingers and toes. The phalanges at the top of the fingers are and toes are called distal phalanges, the ones that join the bones of the hands and feet are known as the proximal phalanges.PatellaThe patella (knee cap) is the triangular shaped bone in front of knee joint. It protects the knee joint.Tibia and calf boneThe tibia is the inner and deeper of the two long bones in the lower limb. It is also called the shin bone and is the supporting bone of the lower leg. The calf bone is the outer and thinner bone of the lower leg. The fibula provides attachment for the muscles.TarsalsThese are short and irregular bones. They help to support the weight of the body and provide attachment for the calves.MetatarsalsThe metatarsal is one of the five long, cylindrical bon es in the forefoot the forefoot is responsible for(p) for supporting body weight and balance pressure through the balls of the feet.FemurThis is the longest bone in the body. The top of it fits into the sockets of the pelvis to make the hip joint, and the lower ends joins with the tibia to make the knee joint. The femur supports the weight of the upper body and enables movement of the legs.JOINTSJoints provide the link between bones. A joint is formed wherever two or more bones seemly. on that point are three types of joint, each classified according to the degree of movement they allow.FixedA fixed joint occurs where the margins of two bones meet and interlock. Bands of tough, fibrous tissue hold the bones together. They are also known as fibrous or immovable joints. An eccentric of a fixed joint is between the plates in the cranium.Slightly movableThese allow some slight movement as the name suggests. The ends of bone are cover in hyaline cartilage which is separated by pads o f sporting fibro cartilage. Slight movement is made possible because the pads of cartilage compress. Between most of vertebrae is an example of this type of joint.synovialThey offer the highest level of mobility at a joint and they consist of two or more bones, the ends of which are covered with articular cartilage, which allows the bones to move over each other with borderline friction. synovial fluid lubricates and nourishes the joint. The joint capsule is held together by ligaments. This provides the intensity level to avoid dislocation, while being flexible enough to allow movement.Synovial joints can be divided into groups according to the type of movement they allow. attachThese allow movement in one direction only. Elbow and knee are typical examples of hinge joints. The types of movement allowed are flexion and extension. ball and socketIt allows movement in all directions. The types movement allowed are flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumductiom, rotation, p ronation, supination, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, inversion, turning away and hyper extension. Examples include the hip and shoulder joints.EllipsoidThese are a modified version of ball and socket. Movement is backward and forwards and from side to side. They are also known as condyloid joints and the wrist joint is an example. Ellipsoid joints allow circumductiom, inversion and eversion.GlidingThese allow movement over a flat surface in all directions, but this is restricted by ligaments or bony prominence, for example carpals and tarsal. Gliding joints allow inversion, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion and eversion. fallThese allow rotation only about a single axis. An example is in the neck, where the atlas and axis join.SaddleThese are similar to ellipsoidal joints but the surfaces are concave and convex. Movement occurs backwards and forward and from side to side, as at the base thumb.SKELETAL RESPONSE TO EXERCISESynovial Fluid movement at joints stimulates the secretion of Synovial fluid. Becomes less thick range of movement at joints increases.Mineral Content increased by somatic legal action on bones e.g. increase of calcium collagen to withhold up with the demand pressed on your bones.Cartilage- run lows thicker becoming better at shock absorption, with regular class period it also connects the ribs to the sternum.Tendons they become thicker and are able to withstand slap-uper forces applied when we take part in a physical activity.Ligaments these will stretch causing an increase in flexibility so that the person taking part in the physical activity is able to twist and turn without getting any injuries. (it helps increase agility) get up becomes stronger denser as a result of the demands you place on them through physical activity pattern. So it becomes hard for the bones taking part in an activity to break compared to that of a person who is not taking part in any activity.MUSCLESThe main function of the muscles is to move the bon es of the skeleton. There are three different types of muscle tissue which arecardiacIs an involuntary muscle that forms the wall of the heart and works continuously. It is highly repellent to run down. for each one contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle as a whole represents one heart beat.SkeletalIt is also known as striped or striated muscle. They are attached to the bones of the skeleton by tendons and they usually work in pairs. These muscles are voluntary i.e. works under conscious control.SmoothIt is an involuntary muscle that functions under the control of the flyaway system. it is located in the walls of the digestive system and family vessels and helps to regulate digestion and relationship pressure.All skeletal muscles contain a mixture of fast and obtuse twitch fibres.Type 1 muscle fibres slow-twitchThis type of muscles contract slowly with less force. They are slow to fatigue and accommodate to long epoch aerobic activities. They are recruited for low intensity activities likes long-distance running.Type 2a muscle fibres fast-oxidativeThey contract very quickly, are able to produce a great force as well as resistant to fatigue. These muscle types are suited for middle-distance evens like 800m and 1500m running.Type 2b fast-glycolticThis type of muscle fibre contracts quickly and can produce large amounts of force they are better suited to activities that require sudden bursts of power such as high jump. They also tire easily.MAJOR MUSCLES stock certificate muscles crinkle is attached to the immovable bone. introduction muscles insertion is attached to the movable bone.BICEPFunction flexes the lowers arm. spot inside of arm.Movement the origin is the scapula, which is movable, and the radius is the insertion that moves with contraction.Sporting/exercise when taking a jump shot in basketball the insertion moves back as the biceps contracts to pull the arm. protagonist when making the shot.Concentric contraction.TRICEPFunc tion extends the lower arm. localization principle outside of upper arm. bodily structure Movement Sporting/exercise whenAgonist when lowering then arm.Antagonist when working against biceps.DELTOIDSFunctions abducts, flexes and extends upper arm.Location forms cap of shoulder.Origin clavicle, scapula and acromion. interpellation humerus.Sport/exercise forward, later and back-arm raises, command processing overhead.PECTORALSFunctions flexes and abducts upper arm.Location large chest muscle.Origin sternum, clavicle and ribcage.insertion humerus.Sports/exercise all pressing movements.RECTUS ABDOMINISFunctions flexion and rotation of lumbar region of vertebral column.Location six pack muscle running down abdomen.Origin pubic crest and symphysis interjection Xiphoid process.Sports/exercise sit-ups.QUADRICEPSRectus femorisVastus lateralisVastus medialisVastus intermediusFunctions extends lower leg and flexes thigh.Location front of thigh.Origin Ilium and femurInserti on tibia and fibulaSports/exercise knee bends, squatsHAMSTRINGSSemimembranosusSemitendinosusBiceps femorisFunctions flexes lower leg and extends thigh.Location back of thigh.Origin ischium and femur.Insertion tibia and fibula.Sports/exercise e.g. running (extending leg and flexing knee)GASTROCNEMIUSFunction plantar flexion flexes knee.Location large calf muscle.Origin femurInsertion calcaneus.Sports/exercise running, spring and standing on tiptoe.SOLEUSFunction plantar flexion.Location intricate to gastrocnemius.Origin fibula and tibia.Insertion calcaneus.Sports/exercise running and jumping.TIBIALIS precedentFunctions dorsiflexion of foot.Location front of tibia on lower leg.Origin lateral condyle.Insertion by tendon to surface of medial cuneiform.Sports/exercise all running and jumping exercise.ERECTOR SPINAEFunction extension of spine.Location long muscle running every side of spine.Origin cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.Insertion cervical, tho racic and lumbar vertebrae.Sporting/exercise prime mover of back extension.TERES MAJORFunction rotates and abducts the humerus.Location it is found between the scapula and humerus.Origin posterior surface of the scapula.Insertion intertubercular sulcus of humerus.Sporting/exercise all quarrel and pulling movements.TRAPEZIUSFunction elevates and depresses scapula.Location large triangular muscle at top of back.Origin continues insertion along acromion.Insertion occipital bone and all thoracic vertebrae.Sporting/exercise shrugging and overhead lifting.LATISSIMUS DORSIFunctions extends and abducts the lower arm.Location large muscle covering back of lower ribs.origin vertebrae and iliac crestInsertion humerus.sporting/exercise rowing movementsOBLIQUESFunction lateral flexion of trunk.Location found on the waist.origin pubic crest and iliac crestinsertion -fleshly strips to lower eight ribsSporting/exercise oblique curls.GLUTEUS MAXIMUSFunction -0 extends the thigh. Location large muscle on the buttocks.Origin ilium, sacrum and coccyx.insertion femurSporting/exercise knee-bending movements, cycling.RESPONSE TO EXERCISE short responses these are the responses that happens immediately and do not continue to be like that after the physical activity.An increase in muscular temperature and metabolic activity.Muscles become more pliable which increases their flexibility and hack the risk of injuries.Long-term responses this is sort of an outcome that is achieved after a long time of trainingMuscle bulk and size will increase.Tendons become thicker and stronger.Articular cartilage becomes thicker.There is an increase in muscle tone and possibly reduction in body fat.Cardiovascular System StructureThe cardiovascular system consists of heart, business line vessels and subscriber line. It is also referred to as the circulatory system. This system is the major transport system in the body by which food, oxygen and all other essential products a re carried to the tissue cells.The heart is the centre of the cardiovascular system. It is a muscular pump which pumps slant to the working muscles. It is situated in the left side of the chest beneath the sternum. An adult heart is about the size of a closed fist. The heart wall is made up of three layers the epicardium (the outer layer), myocardium (the strong middle layer that forms most of the heart wall), and the endocardium (the inner layer). The septum separates the right and left side of the heart. Each side has two chamber which function separately from one another.The atria are the upper chambers of the heart. They receive blood perishing to the heart from either the body or the lungs. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior mineral vein cava. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary veins. The ventricles are the pumping chambers of the heart. They have thicker walls than the atria. The right ventr icle pumps blood to the pulmonary circulation for the lungs and the left ventricle pumps blood to the systematic circulation for the body.Valves prevent back fly the coop of blood. The bicuspid valve allows blood to flow in one direction only, from the left atrium to the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve allows blood to flow the right atrium to the right ventricle. The pulmonary valve prevents backflow from the pulmonary artery. The aortal valve prevents backflow from the aorta into the left ventricle. Chordae tendineae are cord-like tendons that connect to the bicuspid and tricuspid valves. They prevent the valves from turning inside out.The aorta is the main artery in the body and it originates in the left ventricle and carries oxygenated blood to body tissues except the lungs. The superior nervure cava receives deoxygenated blood from the upper body to empty into the right atrium of the heart. The inferior vena cava receives deoxygenated blood from the lower body to empty in to right atrium of the heart. The pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart back to the lungs. It is the only the artery in the body that carries deoxygenated blood.As the heart contracts, blood flows around the body in a complex network of vessels. The structure of the different vessels at bottom the cardiovascular system is determined by their different functions and the pressure of blood exerted within in them. Arteries carry blood away from the heart and with exception of the pulmonary artery they carry oxygenated blood. They have thick muscular walls to carry blood at high speeds under high pressure. The contractility of the arteries helps to maintain blood pressure in relation to changes in blood flow. Arterioles have thinner walls than arteries. These vessels control blood distribution by changing their diameter. Capillaries form an extensive network that connects ar teries and veins. They are the smallest of all blood vessels, minute and their walls are just one cell thick. Veins facilitate venous return the return of deoxygenated blood to the heart. They branch into smaller vessels called venules, these collect blood leaving the capillaries and transport it to the veins.CARDIO vascular (CV) FunctionsDelivery of Oxygen and Nutrients the key function of the circulatory system is to supply oxygen and nutrients to the tissues of the body. Blood carries nutrients absorbed from the intestine to the of the body, along with oxygen and water.Removal of waste products the circulatory system is responsible for the remotion of waste products from the tissues to the kidneys and liver returns carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.Thermoregulation the cardiovascular system is also responsible for the distribution and redistribution of heat within the body to maintain thermal balance.CARDIO VASCULAR Responses to ExerciseDuring exercise, the hea rt beats faster and harder in order to meet the demands of the energy by the working muscles. If these demands are repeated frequently, the heart lastly becomes stronger. The heart and blood vessels of the circulatory system adapt to these repeated demands.Short-term responsesAnticipatory heart rate before starting exercise the heart rate usually increases above resting levels to meet the demands of an exercise.Heart rate at onset of exercise this is the heat rate as exercise begins.Redirection of blood flow at the start of exercise, nerve centres in the brain maintain an activity resulting in the rate and pumping strength of heart to increase. Regional blood flow is changed in proportion to the intensity of the activity to be undertaken.Vasodilatation this is the outturn of blood vessels in order to increase blood flow when it is getting pumped out in high amounts.Vasoconstriction this is the narrowing of blood vessels to cut back blood flow.Long-term ResponsesCardiac hyper trophy this is when the heart increases in size and blood volume. The wall of the ventricle thickens, increasing the strength potential of its contractions delivering more oxygenated blood to the working muscle so that they do not fatigue easily.Increased stroke volume the volume of blood pumped out each beat increases.Increased cardiac output the volume of blood pumped in one minute increases as a result the of increased heart rate, stroke volume or both.Decreased resting heart rate the heart rate returns to normal after exercise quickly. This reduces the work load on the heart.RESPIRATORY SYSTEMNasal cavity this is the line of achievement above and behind the nose.Air enters the body through the nostrils. Small hairs within the nostrils filter out dust and all sorts of foreign particles before the air passes into the two nasal passages of the nasal cavity.The air is then further change and moistened before it passes into the naso pharynx. A mucous layer within this structur e traps smaller foreign particles, which the cilia transport to the pharynx to be either swallowed or spittle out.PharynxThis is a funnel shaped that connects the nasal cavity and the backtalk to the larynx and oesophagus.Commonly known as the throat, the pharynx is a small length of tubing that measures approximately 10-13cm from the base of the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebrae. The muscular pharynx wall is composed of skeletal muscle end-to-end its length.It is a passage way for food as well as air. This outlines that it has to have special adaptations to prevent choking when swallowing food or drink.larynx it has got rigid walls made up of muscles and cartilage and it contains the vocal cords and connects the pharynx to the trachea.Trachea It is also known as windpipe and it is approximately 12cm long and 2cm in diameter in size, containing rings of cartilage to prevent it from collapsing. It travels down the neck in front of the oesophagus and branches into two bronchi.Bronchus the main aim for the bronchi is to conduct air into the lungs. The right bronchus is shorter and wider than the left. When air is inhaled and reaches the bronchi, it is warm, exit of most impurities and saturated with water vapour.Onc